tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-42331593226396433132024-02-20T13:30:05.775+08:00AuxiliaryAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.comBlogger22125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-84889041155895720202013-01-24T13:58:00.000+08:002013-01-24T13:58:35.638+08:00INTERNAL MEMORY<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">INTERNAL MEMORY.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a><o:p></o:p></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Secara asas memori terbahagi kepada :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Memori fizikal<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Memori virtual<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Caches<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Operasi kepada cell memori ada dua iaitu write and read.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dia mempunyai 2 terminal iaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">1.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Select terminal – untuk membuat pilihan sama ada cell memori perlu baca atau pun menulis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">2.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Terminal pengawalan – to indicate read/write.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">SEMIKONDUKTOR MEMORI.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Boleh baca / tulis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Volatile<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Simpanan sementara.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Terbahagi kepada dua static atau dinamik.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;">Static RAM</span></b><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Menggunakan banyak transistor, selalunya 4-6 setiap satu cell memori tapi tak ada kapasitor dalam setiap cell.Selalunya SRAM digunakan untuk cache.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dynamic RAM<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Ada cell memori menggunakan transistor dan kapasitor.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dynamic RAM<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Memori utama.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Tidak mahal.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Perlahan<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Need refresh circuits<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Smaller per bits<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Essentially analogue<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Setiap level berdasarkan nilainya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Simpler constraction<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Charges leak<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Bits stored as charge in capacitors.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">DRAM OPERATION.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Address line (dalam i/o module) aktif apabila bit dibaca atau ditulis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Transistor ditutup(cuurent flows)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Tulis(write)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Voltage to bit line <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Nilai 1 tinggi , 0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yang rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Signal untuk address line<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Transsferrs charge to capacitor.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Baca(read)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Address line dpilih.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Transistor dibuka.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to sense amplifier<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Bandingkan menggunakan rujukan nilai 0 atau 1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Cas kapasitor harus disimpan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Static RAM<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Bit disimpan sama ada buka atau tutup suis tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">No charges to leak<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">No refreshing needed when powered<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">More complex construction<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Setiap satu bit besar<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Lebih mahal<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Does not need refresh circuits<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Cepat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Cache<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Digital<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Menggunakan flip-flop.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">STATIC RAM OPERATION.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Transistor arrangement gives stable logic state<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">State 1<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">C<sub>1 </sub>high, C<sub>2</sub> low<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">T<sub>1</sub> T<sub>4</sub>off, T<sub>2</sub> T<sub>3</sub>on<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">State 0<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">C<sub>1 </sub>low, C<sub>2</sub> high<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">T<sub>1</sub> T<sub>4</sub>on, T<sub>2</sub> T<sub>3</sub>off.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Address line transistors T<sub>5</sub> T<sub>6</sub> is switch.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Write – apply value to B and compliment to B.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Read – value is on line B.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">SRAM vs DRAM.<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Kedua-duanya volatile.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Kuasa diperlukan untuk keluarkan data.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dynamic cell<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Senang untuk dibina, dan kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">More dense<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Kurang mahal<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Needs refresh<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Memori unit yang besar.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Static<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Cepat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Cache<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">READ ONLY MEMORY(ROM)<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Juga dikenali sebagai firmware.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">ROM bukan sahaja digunakan didalam computer malahan kebanyakkan barangan elektronik juga.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Merupakan simpanan tetep<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Non-volatile<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Microprogramming<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Subrutin library<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Program system(BIOS)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Function tables<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">JENIS – JENIS ROM.<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Menulis apabila dibuat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Sangat mahal untuk yang kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Programmable (once)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">PROM<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Need special equipment to program<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Read “mostly”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Erasable Programmable (EPROM)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dipadam menggunakan UV<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Mengambil masa yang lama untukmenulis berbanding membaca.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Flash memory<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Memadam seluruh elektrik memori.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Error Correction<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Hard failure<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Permanent defect<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Soft error<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Random, non-destructive<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Tiada kerosakan kekal kepada memori.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Dapat mengesan Hamming error menggunakan kod pembetulan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
-NURUL AIN FARHANA-Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-61302777841536495212013-01-24T13:47:00.001+08:002013-01-24T13:47:39.713+08:00INPUT AND OUTPUT ARCHITECTURE<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">INTPUT AND OUTPUT ARCHITECTURE.<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">INPUT DEVICES<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Papan kekunci<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Tetikus<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Scanner<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">CD-ROM<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Pengawalan (controller)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">OUTPUT DEVICES<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Monitor<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Printer<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Disk drives<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Floppy disk<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">CD RW-ROM<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Speakers<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Input - hantar arahan kepada CPU.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Output – terima arahan daripada CPU.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O devives can bee characterized by:<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Behaviour : inpu</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a><span style="font-family: Calibri;">t , output , storage.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Partner : human or machine<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Data rate: bytes/sec, transfers/sec.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I/O devives can bee characterized by:</span></u></b><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">How the component (controller, memory, processor) can be communicated each others by using bus system.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">All component have their own bus system.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Graphics output – monitor.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Network -<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>LAN network.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I/O module:</span></u></b><span lang="EN-MY" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Interface to CPU and memory.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Interface to one or more peripherals</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Example : printer</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Have their own interface I/O module.</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Controller and timing<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">1.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">CPU asks I/O module to check the status of attached devices.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">2.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O module tells the status.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">3.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">CPU request for data transfer to I/O module if devices is ready.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">4.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O module gather the data and transfer to the CPU.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Example : pen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>drive - we put the new devices in our computer.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>: printer -<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>if we would like to print something.</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">CPU Communication.<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">1.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Command decoding</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Tulis(write) and baca (read)</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">2.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Devices communication</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Involves command , status communcations.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">3.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Data buffering</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Proses ditangguhkan / kita kena tunggu sampai buffer tersebut telah bersedia.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Essential function to overcome speed mismaten.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Contoh : you tube – kita kena tunggu juga walaupun kita dah tekan butang mainkan.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">: printer -<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kitanak print nota, printer tutakterus print nota tu sebab dia nak baca dulu data kita baru dia akan print seperti yang diminta.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">4.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Error detection</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Paper jam or stunk , bad data etc.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Contoh :printer - kita nak print nota tapi kertas sudah habis jadi dia akan keluarkan pop up di skrin komputer untuk bagi tahu kita yang kertas tiada.</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O system characteristics<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">kebergantungan sangat penting<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><o:p></o:p></u></i></b></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">selalunya apabila kita naks impan devices<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><o:p></o:p></u></i></b></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">mengukur setiap persembahannya.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Latency (tindakbalas terhadap masa melalui desktop dan embedded)</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">INTERCONNECTING COMPNENT<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Need interconnecting between CPU, memory, I/O controller.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Bus : share communication channel</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Can became a bottleneck.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Performance limited by physical factors</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Wire length, number of connections</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">More recent alternative : high-speed serial connections with switches.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: 'Courier New'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Courier New';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Like network.</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O MANAGEMENT<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O is mediated by the operating system.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Multiples program shared I/O resources.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Need protection and scheduling.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O causes synchronous interrupts.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Same machine as exceptions</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">I/O programming is fiddly.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-MY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Operating system abstractions to program..</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-MY"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> -nurul ain farhana-</span></o:p></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-49974807336792997532012-12-25T18:13:00.001+08:002012-12-25T18:14:58.659+08:00ExTeRnaL MeMoRy >>>> bY Farhana Zubir<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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>>>> VIDEO INI MENERANGKAN TENTANG MEMORY <<<<</div>
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>>>> EXTERNAL MEMORY <<<<</div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-60445317237648537442012-12-23T23:30:00.000+08:002012-12-23T23:30:24.477+08:00Language of The Computer 1 >>> by Farhana Zubir<div style="text-align: center;">
>>>> Video yang menerangkan tentang Language of The Computer 1 <<<<</div>
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>>>> Arithmetic Operand,Register Operand,Memory Operand,Immediate Operand <<<<</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-3571690619241320922012-12-23T13:40:00.000+08:002012-12-23T13:40:18.207+08:00Bus Line >>>> By Farhana Zubir <br />
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<b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: purple; font-size: x-large;"><u>JENIS BUS LINE</u></span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 200%;">|<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;">PCI bus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 200%;">|<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;">ISA bus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 200%;">|<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;">Universal serial bus (USB)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; line-height: 200%;">|<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;">Accelerated graphics port (AGP)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;">PCI bas:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;"> PCI bermaksud menyambungkan peripheral
component yang telah dibangunkan oleh Intel. Hari ini ia adalah seni bina bas
yang digunakan secara meluas. Bas PCI boleh beroperasi sama ada bit 32 atau 64
bit data bas dan kebanyakannya 32-bit adalah address bus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 200%;">ISA Bas:</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;">ISA adalah singkatan bagi Industry
Standard Architecture. Kebanyakan Kepingan mengandungi slot ISA di papan utama untuk
menyambung sama ada
kad ISA 8-bit atau kad ISA 16-bit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;">USB: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;">Ia adalah sebuah siri bas kelajuan
tinggi . Ia mempunyai data yang lebih tinggi. Kadar pemindahan lebih kurang
daripada fesyen port bersiri. Beberapa
peranti boleh disambungkan ke dalam rantaian daisy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 200%;">AGP:</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;"> Ia adalah 32-bit slot pengembangan atau reka
bentuk bas khas untuk kad video.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #38761d; font-size: large;"><u><br /></u></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #38761d; font-size: x-large;"><u>JENIS BAS</u></span><span style="color: #9bbb59;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 200%;">Bas ada 2 jenis :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 200%;">Þ</span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;"> Bersiri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 200%;">Þ</span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%;"> Selari<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;">Bas selari
ialah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;">Bergerak dalam data bit yang berganda dengan beberapa bit individu yang bergerak di laluan selari. Selari bas
boleh datang dalam beberapa saiz.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;">Bas bersiri
ialah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="line-height: 115%;"> Data bas bersiri bergerak satu bit per satu
bit pada satu masa, dalam satu siri melalui bas. Jenis bas boleh digunakan sama
ada dalam aplikasi bas luaran atau bas dalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: #45818e;"><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">CIRI-CIRI BUS
LINE</span><span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></span></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pelbagai peranti komunikasi
menggunakan lebih set tunggal wayar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hanya satu peranti yang boleh beritahu
pada satu masa atau mesej tidak teratur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada satu masa, setiap baris atau
wayar bas boleh mengandungi angka binari tunggal dari masa ke masa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;">Garisan-garisan ini boleh menghantar
maklumat secara selari<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;">Satu sistem komputer mungkin
mengandungi beberapa bas yang berbeza.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-43145721031061706572012-12-18T06:53:00.000+08:002012-12-18T12:28:02.667+08:0032 bit -NURUL FAIZAH SASARUDDIN<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlLjzjTRjjJThnpencHcd4-9F3bolGs-XnwxRO6GlMT0oNv1URQS5MSb-7c48XZQs-xIdZeTWcQke63X_rgiG1gKHiri38bXdK_ivacCrB19IavPeMw2Imh5nNkTVrQfsxy0ePCZ4dG0sZ/s1600/32-single.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="202" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlLjzjTRjjJThnpencHcd4-9F3bolGs-XnwxRO6GlMT0oNv1URQS5MSb-7c48XZQs-xIdZeTWcQke63X_rgiG1gKHiri38bXdK_ivacCrB19IavPeMw2Imh5nNkTVrQfsxy0ePCZ4dG0sZ/s320/32-single.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Kepada senibina
x86, aplikasi 32-bit biasanya bermaksud perisian yang biasanya (tidak
semestinya) menggunakan ruang alamat 32-bit linear (atau memori model rata)
mungkin dengan cip 80386 dan model selepasnya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">. Dalam konteks
ini, istilah ini wujud kerana DOS, Microsoft Windows dan OS / 2 pada asalnya ditulis untuk 8088/8086 dan /
atau 80286, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Mikropemproses 16-bit
dengan ruang alamat dibahagikan di mana program terpaksa beralih antara segmen
mencapai lebih daripada 64 kilobait kod dan / atau data. Kerana ini adalah agak
memakan masa berbanding dengan operasi mesin yang lain,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">prestasi boleh menurun.
Tambahan pula, pengaturcaraan dengan segmen cenderung untuk menjadi rumit; khas
jauh dan dekat kata kunci dan / atau model memori terpaksa digunakan (dengan
berhati-hati), bukan sahaja dalam bahasa himpunan, tetapi juga dalam bahasa
peringkat tinggi seperti Pascal, disusun BASIC, Fortran, C , dan lain-lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">80386 dan
penggantinya menyokong sepenuhnya segmen 16-bit daripada 80286 tetapi juga
segmen untuk ofset <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">alamat 32-bit
(menggunakan lebar baru 32-bit daftar utama). Jika alamat asas semua segmen
32-bit ditetapkan kepada 0, dan daftar segmen tidak digunakan dengan jelas,
segmentasi boleh dilupakan dan pemproses muncul sebagai mempunyai ruang alamat
32-bit linear mudah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Sistem operasi
seperti Windows atau OS / 2 menyediakan kemungkinan untuk menjalankan 16-bit
(dibahagikan) program serta program 32-bit. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
sweetdevilablehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00339876693709333944noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-79280069750681951782012-12-18T05:26:00.001+08:002012-12-18T12:28:02.669+08:00Cache Memory - NURUL FAIZAH SASARUDDIN<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://megaswf.com/file/2532411">CLICK HERE FOR VIDEO.. DON'T FORGET TO MAKE IT FULLSCREEN!!</a></div>
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Di atas merupakan screen record bagi contoh penggunaan cache memory dalam kehidupan seharian..<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyRhNeB6q_SBFmSaNaKbXjEbQCZmr_e5cGegV6nUvp93hjpo13Dss9a5u1K0Ikf2FDAdMu0zuCPmonwq4G68MJs9Xciu39GWeNLERmFtK9zA60AD89mZgRm6r34ZW-n9NjJeJpa5yZpAjb/s1600/bus-cartoon-comic-breadwig.com_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyRhNeB6q_SBFmSaNaKbXjEbQCZmr_e5cGegV6nUvp93hjpo13Dss9a5u1K0Ikf2FDAdMu0zuCPmonwq4G68MJs9Xciu39GWeNLERmFtK9zA60AD89mZgRm6r34ZW-n9NjJeJpa5yZpAjb/s320/bus-cartoon-comic-breadwig.com_.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />sweetdevilablehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00339876693709333944noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-40331587727342858432012-12-18T05:05:00.002+08:002012-12-18T05:06:14.868+08:00Teknik Masukan dan Keluaran -NURUL FAIZAH SASARUDDIN<br />
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">1.
MASUKAN DAN KELUARAN TERPROGRAM</span><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">data saling dipertukarkan antara CPU dan
modul masukan/keluaran atau input/output (I/O).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">CPU melaksanakan program yang memberikan
operasi I/O kepada CPU secara langsung. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<ul type="circle">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Pemindahan data<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Pengiriman perintah baca ataupun tulis<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Pemantauan berperingkat<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Kelemahan:<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<ul type="circle">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">CPU akan menunggu sehingga operasi I/O
selesai dilakukan modul I/O sehingg akan memuang waktu, CPU lebih cepat
memproses operasinya.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Dalam teknik ini, modul I/O tidak dapat
melakukan gangguan padanya.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "heartfont","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-MY; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Seluruh proses merupakan tanggungjawab
CPU sehingga semua operasi lengkap dilaksanakan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Klasifikasi
perintah I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah control<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah ini
digunakan untuk mengaktifkan peringkat peripheral dan memberitahu tugas yang
diperintah padanya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah test<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah ini
digunakan CPU untuk menguji berbagai kondisi status modul I/O dan periferalnya.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">CPU perlu
mengetahui peranti peripheral dalam keadaan aktif dan siap digunakan juga untuk
mengetahui operasi-operasi I/O yang dijalankan serta mengesan ralatnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah read<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah pada
modul I/O untuk mengambil satu paket data kemudian meletakkan dalam buffer
internal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Proses selanjutnya
paket data dikirim melalui bus data setelah terjadi sinkronisasi data atau
kelajuan pemindahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah write<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Perintah ini
berlawanan dari read.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">CPU
memerintahkan modul I/O untuk mengambil data dari bus data untuk diberikan pada
peranti peripheral.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">2. Memory-Mapped I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Terdapat ruang
tunggal untuk lokasi memori dan peranti I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">CPU membuat
register status dan register data modul I/O sebagai lokasi memori dan
menggunakan arahan mesin yang sama untuk mengakses sama ada memori atau peranti
I/O.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Ini adalah
kerana saluran tunggal untuk pembacaan dan saluran tunggal untuk penulisan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Kelebihan memory-mapped I/O adalah efisyen dalam memprogram, namun
memakan banyak ruang dalam memori alamat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">3. Isolated</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Dilakukan pemisahan
ruang pengalamatan bagi memori dan ruang pengalamatan bagi I/O.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Dengan teknik
ini, bus yang dilengkapi dengan saluran pembacaan dan penulisan memori ditambah
dengan saluran perintah output.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Keuntungan isolated
I/O adalah sedikitnya arahan I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">4. Interrupt Driven I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Proses yang
tidak membuang waktu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Antara proses
yang terlibat :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">CPU
mengeluarkan perintah I/O pada modul I/O, bersamaan perintah I/O dijalankan
modul I/O maka CPU akan melakukan pelaksanaan perintah-perintah lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Apabila modul
I/O telah selesai menjalankan arahan yang diberikan padanya akan melakukan
gangguan pada CPU bahw tugasnya telah selesai.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Kawalan perintah
masih menjadi taggungjawab CPU, sama ada pengambilan perintah dari memori
ataupun pelaksanaan isi perintah tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Terdapat selangkah
kemajuan dari teknik sebelumya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">CPU melakukan
multitasking bagi beberapa perintah sekaligus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Tidak ada waktu
menunggu bgi CPU, ini bermakna proses yang cepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Cara kerja
teknik gangguan di sisi modul I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Modul I/O
menerima perintah, sebagai contoh read.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Modul I/O
melaksanakan perintah pembacaan dari peripheral dan meletakkan paket data ke
register data modul I/O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Modul
mengeluarkan signal gangguan ke CPU melalui siaran kawalan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Modul meletakkan
data pada bas data<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New'; font-size: 14pt;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: heartfont, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Modul sedia
menerima perintah selanjutnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
sweetdevilablehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00339876693709333944noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-65416277107630627102012-12-18T04:45:00.002+08:002012-12-18T04:45:41.801+08:00x86 - Nurul Jamal<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br /></div>
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Two operands per instruction :</div>
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<br /></div>
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Memory addressing modes,</div>
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</div>
<ul>
<li>Address in register</li>
<li>Address = R<span style="font-size: xx-small;">base </span>+ displacement</li>
<li>Address = R<span style="font-size: xx-small;">base </span>+ 2<span style="font-size: xx-small;">scale</span> x R<span style="font-size: xx-small;">index</span> (scale = 0,1,2 or 3)</li>
<li>Address = R<span style="font-size: xx-small;">base </span>+ 2<span style="font-size: xx-small;">scale</span> x R<span style="font-size: xx-small;">index </span>+ displacement</li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-16960708352103714432012-12-18T02:40:00.000+08:002012-12-18T02:40:41.777+08:00Fungsi Model Input/Output (I/O) - Nurul Jamal<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br /></div>
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Terdapat 5 fungsi Modul I/O iaitu:</div>
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</div>
<ol>
<li>Control and Timing</li>
<li>CPU Communicating</li>
<li>Device Communication</li>
<li>Data Buffering</li>
<li>Error Detection</li>
</ol>
<br /><br />
<h3>
<u>1. Control and Timing</u></h3>
<div>
Modul I/O berfungsi sebagai pengatur aliran data antara <i>resource </i>internal (CPU, memori) dengan <i>device</i> eksternal. Contoh prosedur transfer data dari device ke CPU:<br /><ul>
<li>CPU memeriksa status device melalui modul I/O</li>
<li>Device memberikan statusnya melalui modul I/O</li>
<li>Jika ready, CPU minta agar device mengirimkan data</li>
<li>Modul I/O menerima data dari device</li>
<li>Modul I/O mengirimkan data ke CPU</li>
</ul>
<h3>
<u>2. CPU Communicating</u></h3>
</div>
<div>
<div>
Modul I/O berfungsi sebagai media komunikasi dari CPU menuju device eksternal. Antara yang modul I/O lakukan ialah :</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Men-decode command dari CPU<br />->Contoh perintah untuk harddisk: READ SECTOR, WRITE SECTOR, SEEK track number, dan SCAN record ID</li>
<li>Menjadi media untuk pertukaran data</li>
<li>Melaporkan status device (status reporting)<br />->Misal: BUSY atau READY</li>
<li>Memeriksa/men-decode alamat yang dikirimkan oleh CPU (address recognition)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<h3>
<u>3. Device Communication</u></h3>
<div>
<div>
Modul I/O berfungsi sebagai media komunikasi dari deviceeksternal menuju CPU. Apa yang dilakukan modul I/O ?</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Meneruskan perintah/ commanddari CPU ke device</li>
<li>Meneruskan status dari device ke CPU</li>
<li>Meneruskan data dari device ke CPU</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<h3>
<u>4. Data Buffering</u></h3>
<div>
<div>
Modul I/O berfungsi sebagai penampung data sementara baik dari CPU/memori maupun dari</div>
<div>
peripheral.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Mengapa data perlu di-buffer?</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Kecepatan device sangat beragam</li>
<li>Kecepatan device (CPU)</li>
</ul>
Contoh:<br /><ul>
<li>Data dari CPU :<br />- Langsung ditaruh di buffer<br />- Diberikan ke device sesuai dengan kecepatan (“daya serap”) device</li>
<li>Data dari device :<br />- Dikumpulkan dulu di buffer<br />- Setelah periode tertentu baru dikirimkan ke CPU -> lebih efektif</li>
</ul>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
<h3>
<u>5. Error Detection</u></h3>
<div>
<div>
Modul I/O berfungsi sebagai pendeteksi kesalahan yang ditimbulkan oleh device.</div>
<div>
Antara contoh kesalahan ialah :</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Paper jam</li>
<li>Bad sector</li>
<li>Kertas habis</li>
<li>Terjadi perubahan bit-bit data</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-40694061189796969782012-12-18T00:26:00.001+08:002012-12-18T00:44:53.319+08:00Aplikasi Memori Cache - Nurul Jamal<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCWjiaKiXYh4nk6GlmVDPmOeNLiuznWuZ9xqIQ4GDyNWZIXtQX6k31IuMzsKyk32Tjca_mU93Gab0WSQpynvnODbHswbpSTfS56C-1Lrn8-YSLG0pzDnyfXOr0mN8CAJNskmGwjPFxY-GM/s1600/Title.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="318" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCWjiaKiXYh4nk6GlmVDPmOeNLiuznWuZ9xqIQ4GDyNWZIXtQX6k31IuMzsKyk32Tjca_mU93Gab0WSQpynvnODbHswbpSTfS56C-1Lrn8-YSLG0pzDnyfXOr0mN8CAJNskmGwjPFxY-GM/s400/Title.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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Terdapat<b> dua jenis aplikasi </b>dalam cache iaitu :</div>
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</div>
<ol>
<li style="text-align: left;">Cache CPU</li>
<li style="text-align: left;">Cache Cakera</li>
</ol>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
<u style="background-color: #fce5cd;">Cache CPU</u></h3>
Ingatan kecil pada cip CPU boleh dipercepatkan berbanding ingatan utama yang lebih besar.<br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="background-color: #f4cccc;"><u>Cache Cakera</u></span></h3>
<div>
Selalunya disekalikan dengan <i>embedded computer</i> (EC) untuk protokal dan antaramuka. EC selalunya mempunyai ingatan yang kecil yang digunakan bagi menyimpan bit yang datang dan pergi dari piring cakera.</div>
<div>
Terdapat 4 kegunaan dalam cache cakera, iaitu :</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
<ul>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Baca depan / baca belakang (<i>readahead / readbehind</i>): Bila membaca daripada cakera, lengan cakera akan menggerakkan kepala baca/tulis (<i>read/write head</i>) ke laluan yang dikehendaki, dan mula mengambil bit-bit berkaitan. Biasanya, sektor pertama yang dibaca bukan merupakan yang dikehendaki, tetapi sektor sebelumnya. Komputer benam cakera selalunya turut mengambil sektor-sektor ini (sebelum dan selepas) kalau-kalau ia akan diminta oleh sistem pengendalian (O/S) nanti.</span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">Penyelarasan kelajuan (</span><i style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">speed matching</i><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">): Kelajuan antara muka I/O selalunya tidak dapat membandingi kelajuan bit-bit dipindahkan dari/ke piring cakera. Jadi cache cakera digunakan supaya kedua-dua antara muka I/O dan kepada baca/tulis cakera dapat berfungsi pada kelajuan maksimum.</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">Pemecutan penulisan (</span><i style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">write acceleration</i><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">): Komputer benam cakera mungkin memberi isyarat kepada komputer utama bahawa penulisan cakera telah siap selepas menerimanya, walaupun data tersebut sebenarnya belum ditulis. Isyarat ini membolehkan komputer utama meneruskan kerjanya. Namun perkara ini agak bahaya kerana jika komputer kehilangan kuasa sebelum data ditulis kekal dalam cakera, data tersebut akan hilang dari cache cakera, dan akan terdapat kesilapan dalam sistem fail. Pemecutan penulisan adalah satu aspek kontroversi, jadi ia biasanya boleh dimatikan oleh pengguna. Untuk sesetengah cakera, masa bahaya ini boleh menjadi panjang jika terdapat banyak permintaan (</span><i style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">request</i><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">) baru. Jadi, aspek ini amat jarang digunakan dalam pelayan pangkalan data (</span><i style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">database server</i><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">) atau mesin lain yang mementingkan integriti dan ketepatan data.</span></span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">Perbarisan arahan (</span><i style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">command queueing</i><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">): Cakera</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">SATA</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">terbaru dan kebanyakan cakera</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">SCSI</span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.183332443237305px;">boleh menerima pelbagai arahan semasa menjalankan sesuatu arahan. Arahan-arahan ini disimpan oleh komputer benam cakera sehinggalah ia dijalankan. Sekiranya arahan bacaan diterima untuk destinasi yang akan ditulis, maka data yang belum ditulis (sedang beratur) itu akan dikembalikan. Apa yang membezakan aspek ini dengan pemecutan penulisan ialah sistem pengendalian komputer utama diberitahu bial sebenarnya sesuatu data itu ditulis ke cakera (media magnet). Jadi O/S boleh menyusun kembali jadual penulisan supaya sistem fail adalah konsisten.</span></span></span></span></li>
</ul>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-77137901461519717482012-12-04T03:38:00.001+08:002012-12-18T12:28:27.109+08:00VLOG - memori<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Below, is our vlog for OSK programme.</div>
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<object class="BLOGGER-youtube-video" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0" data-thumbnail-src="http://i.ytimg.com/vi/tXImYb_W_jk/0.jpg" height="266" width="320"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/tXImYb_W_jk?version=3&f=user_uploads&c=google-webdrive-0&app=youtube_gdata" /><param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" /><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true" /><embed width="320" height="266" src="http://www.youtube.com/v/tXImYb_W_jk?version=3&f=user_uploads&c=google-webdrive-0&app=youtube_gdata" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowfullscreen="true"></embed></object></div>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-51833790559249576692012-10-22T11:56:00.002+08:002012-10-22T11:56:59.953+08:00ARITHMETIC FOR COMPUTER AND DIGITAL LOGIC (Nurul Ain Farhana Binti Che Ab Manan)<br />
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<span style="font-family: Algerian; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ARITHMETIC FOR COMPUTER.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: red; font-family: "Franklin Gothic Demi Cond","sans-serif"; font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Number System Base .</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">WHAT IS A BASE FOR NUMBER SYSTEM TYPES ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Most of the numbering system will have a base .</span><br />
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 41.25pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">DECIMAL NUMBER:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 60.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Base of 10 .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 60.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The value of the assigned weight is composed
by 10 digits starting from 0 until 9 .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The
positive and negative values are determined by their position weight structure </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BINARY NUMBER:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Base of 10 .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The number consists of 0 and 1 digit only.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">The <b>least
significant bit</b> (LSB) and <b>most
significant bits </b> (MSB) is depends on the size of binary number.</span><sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></sup></h2>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></sup></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">HEXADECIMAL NUMBER :</span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u></b></h2>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> <img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Base of 16 .<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> <img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The value of the assigned weight is composed
by 16 digits starting from 0 until F .<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> <img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The number is suitable to present in fours
bit number .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BINARY DIVISION</span></u></b><span style="font-family: 'Segoe Print'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">EXAMPLE 1 :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">1010</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">/</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">111 = </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> EXAMPLE 2 :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">110 / 10 =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 147.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: "Franklin Gothic Demi Cond","sans-serif"; font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Algerian; font-size: 27px; line-height: 31px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px;">digital logic</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Algerian;"><span style="font-size: 27px; line-height: 31px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Franklin Gothic Demi Cond","sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Combinational Circuits<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">A logic block contains no memory and computes
the output given the current inputs .<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">It can be defined by three ways:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">TRUTH TABLE </span></u></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Show
many possible combinations of input values </span></b><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Segoe Print'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Between
the input values and the result of a specific Boolean operator or combinations
on the input variables .</span></b></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">EXAMPLE :<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> F = AB’ + A’B<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<h2>
<b style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS </span></u></b><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></u></b></h2>
<h2>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px; text-indent: -18pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;">Layout of connected gates that represent the logic circuit .</span></b></h2>
<h2>
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;"><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;">F = AB’ + A’B</span></b></h2>
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<b style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BOOLEAN EQUATIONS :</span></u></b></div>
<h2>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Boolean function that consists possible
combination of inputs that produce an output signal .<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BOOLEAN EQUATION FORMS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Combinations of variables and operators .
Typically , it has one or more inputs and produces an output in the range of 1
or 0 .<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="16" /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">It can be represent in two forms :<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Segoe Print'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><i><u>Sum-of-products (SOP)</u></i></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" width="15" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Combination of input values that produce 1 is
convert into equivalent variables .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" width="15" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">SOP is easier to derive from truth table .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" width="15" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">TRUTH
TABLE : F = AB’ + A’B</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> SOP expression
: F = (A’B) + (AB) + (A’B) + (AB)</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><i><u>Product-of-sums (POS)</u></i></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" width="18" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Input combinations that produce 0 in the sum
terms and convert it into equivalent variables .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" width="18" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;">Usually use if more 1 produce in output
function .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><img alt="*" height="16" src="file:///C:/Users/azwan/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" width="18" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">TRUTH
TABLE : F = AB’ + A’B</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">POS expression : F = (A’B’) + (AB’) + (A’B’)
+ ( AB’)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<h2>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Matura MT Script Capitals'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> <u> </u></span></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%;"><u>KARNAUGH
MAP ..</u></span></b></div>
<h3>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">A
grid-like representation of a truth table.</span></b></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The
rows and column correspond to the possible values of the function’s input.</span></b></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Each
cell represents the output of the functions for those possible inputs.</span></b></li>
</ul>
</h3>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> # n input
= 2<sup>n <o:p></o:p></sup></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><sup><br /></sup></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><sup><br /></sup></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><sup><br /></sup></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">X = (A’D) + (B’D’) + (AB’CD).</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-89608015243882413882012-10-22T05:38:00.000+08:002012-10-22T05:41:35.711+08:00Number System Conversion by Nurul Faizah<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTEDlDs3WJOEdhSyS1lsbFHqmcoJAgFMBWvnpBlh6BRfAPcqR9D0ChLcFbZNE9dnVlwWOqGPatstovfvfQ3BxoEiaG9DmnzR8pxKdca15fM2zseb93vDQ4VxJANWx4nK505MykO4U8jRGi/s1600/NO+CONVERSION.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="267" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTEDlDs3WJOEdhSyS1lsbFHqmcoJAgFMBWvnpBlh6BRfAPcqR9D0ChLcFbZNE9dnVlwWOqGPatstovfvfQ3BxoEiaG9DmnzR8pxKdca15fM2zseb93vDQ4VxJANWx4nK505MykO4U8jRGi/s320/NO+CONVERSION.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b><u><span style="color: red;">NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION</span></u></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWcbZjyc3muQJPxAkIlhy-8WkDkGL-GM1Z0B1aVePX_ybd2eJpLnJtbD56jacGxt_iBiHveNuNeuDNcpmkptZ5DMoxu8B2R9LTYp1vpegw8lr-KkGQTGlkK-Ptw-aGdDmxJNnRmsrb4GOV/s1600/ANIall.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWcbZjyc3muQJPxAkIlhy-8WkDkGL-GM1Z0B1aVePX_ybd2eJpLnJtbD56jacGxt_iBiHveNuNeuDNcpmkptZ5DMoxu8B2R9LTYp1vpegw8lr-KkGQTGlkK-Ptw-aGdDmxJNnRmsrb4GOV/s320/ANIall.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
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1. BINARY TO OCTAL</div>
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<ul>
<li>Bits from binary will be grouped into 3 bit starting from LSB.</li>
<li>Each 3 bits group will be converted to octal.</li>
<li>Example : </li>
</ul>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_-CtRt9sThobrAuGKS8vK_9itnzK9kcH080_65ffpjiOVsfRwcB5u0AohnulWwtR9bvPYicX0WHlvpvJ3y4tFspMTdAKuKy6lg0su0R-qXt63GMpSliLQ2Gv64qAR58PwRu0q5hao_zt2/s1600/bin+to+octal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="115" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_-CtRt9sThobrAuGKS8vK_9itnzK9kcH080_65ffpjiOVsfRwcB5u0AohnulWwtR9bvPYicX0WHlvpvJ3y4tFspMTdAKuKy6lg0su0R-qXt63GMpSliLQ2Gv64qAR58PwRu0q5hao_zt2/s640/bin+to+octal.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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2. OCTAL TO BINARY</div>
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<ul>
<li>Converting octal to binary, is usually by referring the conversion table as shown above.</li>
<li>Each octal number have their own binary number, grouped in 3 bits per number.</li>
<li>Example : </li>
</ul>
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKz0t5CqkSd35qM_D_P2VT79nfLssuQ_tmKp45eYHFE1yG7r50X8f0chjjggRd_42r9LJL6K2HrNzVP6gmxvZn48UKW3bMYFL4bGsYG1ZgKPj9P7eR2nxliwy0EdI8TKGCwbWxzNrmCK2g/s1600/octa+to+bin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="355" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKz0t5CqkSd35qM_D_P2VT79nfLssuQ_tmKp45eYHFE1yG7r50X8f0chjjggRd_42r9LJL6K2HrNzVP6gmxvZn48UKW3bMYFL4bGsYG1ZgKPj9P7eR2nxliwy0EdI8TKGCwbWxzNrmCK2g/s640/octa+to+bin.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<div>
3. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY</div>
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<div>
<ul>
<li>Converting hexadecimal to binary, is usually by referring the conversion table as shown above.</li>
<li>Each octal number have their own binary number, grouped in 4 bits per number.</li>
<li>Example :</li>
</ul>
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfE93VGV8WgyPe48-KXcHL_yuHn4UdoaL28BA4NyeU7f02kejF824r9akUiQ4rCaQDSVBO0vhvzJW2gEnJVVZ4FzwYM0wq-F_exyUuLwBlgsxOqW4uicarfB1zJ_0ZvcdBWYOTU1J6bxjK/s1600/HEXA+TO+BIN.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="332" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfE93VGV8WgyPe48-KXcHL_yuHn4UdoaL28BA4NyeU7f02kejF824r9akUiQ4rCaQDSVBO0vhvzJW2gEnJVVZ4FzwYM0wq-F_exyUuLwBlgsxOqW4uicarfB1zJ_0ZvcdBWYOTU1J6bxjK/s640/HEXA+TO+BIN.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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4. BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL</div>
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<div>
<ul>
<li>Bits from binary will be grouped into 4 bit.</li>
<li>Each 4 bits group will be converted to hexadecimal by referring to the table shown above.</li>
<li>Example :</li>
</ul>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_eaAp6GqOjDzzJrl9EMlVR6ZS78CkHikcR9wLo5c_-GEY1cd60Bweucq-BGrsp5EScjhqPPo6DpmGBxSkLJAYLuVxPHmgRyQO3OHdccu-Mr60uqPJkOmPwOPGHS3lWY0fVF56yaAunzvA/s1600/BIN+TO+HEX.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_eaAp6GqOjDzzJrl9EMlVR6ZS78CkHikcR9wLo5c_-GEY1cd60Bweucq-BGrsp5EScjhqPPo6DpmGBxSkLJAYLuVxPHmgRyQO3OHdccu-Mr60uqPJkOmPwOPGHS3lWY0fVF56yaAunzvA/s640/BIN+TO+HEX.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="color: magenta;">by Nurul Faizah binti Sasaruddin - B031210257</span></div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-57055744508051710752012-10-22T04:39:00.000+08:002012-10-22T05:41:35.708+08:00Number Operation ; Subtraction by Nurul Faizah<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7Sb73WrhnIvtTDDTvYYP9VhvDwT0gsw4Et93TaKgM9GToI8_XUPlMn23iNPelJJwvzwgZRl4OajnwsrrjJ6iEg62-2xPRB2I1Ga_ZiJn7-CnrN7ZlcIbrHbj0jfVehA5BxZcOoebEUjhT/s1600/12914263301547445417green-plus-minus-hi-md.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7Sb73WrhnIvtTDDTvYYP9VhvDwT0gsw4Et93TaKgM9GToI8_XUPlMn23iNPelJJwvzwgZRl4OajnwsrrjJ6iEg62-2xPRB2I1Ga_ZiJn7-CnrN7ZlcIbrHbj0jfVehA5BxZcOoebEUjhT/s1600/12914263301547445417green-plus-minus-hi-md.png" /></a></div>
1. How to subtract binary number<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJ4V-dJjmVYRDTdYE_FtB4RVx-t-97SgdqTY1D29T4KU77Yf-xukC1Cc3G56KXJ7G3znRd87k4asGY5ceNpxapaBDWCBfeIb8FV43ahvd0zHtJ15tCXGhB9AoT3J8kYM0sGgxkCpWqZYmW/s1600/tolak.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJ4V-dJjmVYRDTdYE_FtB4RVx-t-97SgdqTY1D29T4KU77Yf-xukC1Cc3G56KXJ7G3znRd87k4asGY5ceNpxapaBDWCBfeIb8FV43ahvd0zHtJ15tCXGhB9AoT3J8kYM0sGgxkCpWqZYmW/s1600/tolak.jpg" /></a></div>
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<ul>
<li>Align the two numbers as you would in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>Work the columns right to left subtracting in each column. If you must subtract a one from a zero, you need to “borrow” from the left, just as in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>One borrow represent 1, so, if 0 - 1 , = 2-1 = 1</li>
<li>Remember, 0 - 1 = 1 , 10 = 2.</li>
</ul>
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<div>
2. How to subtract octal number</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEim6zI7W9glDUbcUAvKjgU-OK-DAQWgk4sF9aSMGgfgnZ-Rn4yjOU14yTFcTOuf7Em5uLYvM7my2f4bZqriVjsJzHqz1JNa8Oe88ItMFPoRXN__dXx4XWhg6u2weuOgSv1xCDkXeeNpmCoW/s1600/octal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEim6zI7W9glDUbcUAvKjgU-OK-DAQWgk4sF9aSMGgfgnZ-Rn4yjOU14yTFcTOuf7Em5uLYvM7my2f4bZqriVjsJzHqz1JNa8Oe88ItMFPoRXN__dXx4XWhg6u2weuOgSv1xCDkXeeNpmCoW/s1600/octal.jpg" /></a></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Align the two numbers as you would in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>Work the columns right to left subtracting in each column. If you must subtract a one from a smaller number, you need to “borrow” from the left, just as in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>One borrow represent 8.</li>
<li>Add the borrowed value to the smaller value.</li>
</ul>
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<div>
3. How to subtract hexadecimal number</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi33MfPY4bet3YO8LKaKxYm6yepM3MagBacF-rIFN2bg-nS20ZEYW-zOPh6EpJ10h7nxZSXEfsmqndAmUVB-H4dCSYBCKYKoq6czlt6gJgfi35PUnahkpXAli40no068PoopXBz-O32a6Cq/s1600/heksa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi33MfPY4bet3YO8LKaKxYm6yepM3MagBacF-rIFN2bg-nS20ZEYW-zOPh6EpJ10h7nxZSXEfsmqndAmUVB-H4dCSYBCKYKoq6czlt6gJgfi35PUnahkpXAli40no068PoopXBz-O32a6Cq/s1600/heksa.jpg" /></a></div>
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<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Align the two numbers as you would in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>Work the columns right to left subtracting in each column. If you must subtract a one from a smaller number, you need to “borrow” from the left, just as in decimal subtraction.</li>
<li>One borrow represent 16.</li>
<li>Add the borrowed value to the smaller value.</li>
<li>Remember,</li>
<ul>
<li>A = 10</li>
<li>B = 11</li>
<li>C = 12</li>
<li>D = 13</li>
<li>E = 14</li>
<li>F = 15</li>
</ul>
</ul>
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<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="color: magenta;">by : Nurul Faizah binti Sasaruddin - B031210257</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-54927350782807689652012-10-22T03:58:00.001+08:002012-10-22T03:58:47.669+08:00Digital Logic - Universal Gates by Nurul JamalUniversal gates are combination of any gates like AND,OR and NOT. NAND and NOR are such examples.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEKAFzmc1AtDkdmRNE9CeE3rDvGkDRV8XBR3P28I_ZKl2USMCL6xTiz2-egrfxizKVC8v-HbD_IIOMzxSm0c9OFmPi5iqlXqqMRVz2Mjt-dkfAeeKmZ6CGrqueoRYMsrsQS8R2oX7k3WGJ/s1600/p1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEKAFzmc1AtDkdmRNE9CeE3rDvGkDRV8XBR3P28I_ZKl2USMCL6xTiz2-egrfxizKVC8v-HbD_IIOMzxSm0c9OFmPi5iqlXqqMRVz2Mjt-dkfAeeKmZ6CGrqueoRYMsrsQS8R2oX7k3WGJ/s400/p1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Figure 1 : Graphical symbols for NAND gate. Combination from NOT and AND gate.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxQuA6R0MdwM7YxvLDQMlFclQnwzG2hSLG4C6hyphenhyphenrNBd4O3JfTluK7FF98vbLIg4nOWy16OBHM2zFipNJpB7LA3mpxd9NQibsjWFuLTWUNW6V5wEP6XnY4u1OKLIlO1kvOUyUhZhCwgpQPB/s1600/p2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxQuA6R0MdwM7YxvLDQMlFclQnwzG2hSLG4C6hyphenhyphenrNBd4O3JfTluK7FF98vbLIg4nOWy16OBHM2zFipNJpB7LA3mpxd9NQibsjWFuLTWUNW6V5wEP6XnY4u1OKLIlO1kvOUyUhZhCwgpQPB/s400/p2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Figure 2 : Truth table for NAND gate.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh02ZJTlSPpohZuvsjwrM2lafaOuzlg2nTsZJNa_S5MJ0Mwrc6FlRx9khBAO7HCq_WCWYdwCP3UC8B8igzzbCSG3B8KM8hUD68jYq_Ux6hbmOo67oLy-Vg76Pr8aAjrPtHaC5cSCCKHh9uT/s1600/p3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh02ZJTlSPpohZuvsjwrM2lafaOuzlg2nTsZJNa_S5MJ0Mwrc6FlRx9khBAO7HCq_WCWYdwCP3UC8B8igzzbCSG3B8KM8hUD68jYq_Ux6hbmOo67oLy-Vg76Pr8aAjrPtHaC5cSCCKHh9uT/s640/p3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Figure 3 : Graphical symbols for NOR gate. Combination from NOT and OR gate.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjjfKZ70Fo20FbBY_rjPqotexh5lfLhozuyjiQ711IHg1g6a2MlcTr6ECyElCEUBPs71pGlPISTtzcG1ic7qOho54owriWVQBeOksSnckmpZoYQW2JCbP6J3iYeuI7hiZGYgbuovok0ZV4/s1600/p4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjjfKZ70Fo20FbBY_rjPqotexh5lfLhozuyjiQ711IHg1g6a2MlcTr6ECyElCEUBPs71pGlPISTtzcG1ic7qOho54owriWVQBeOksSnckmpZoYQW2JCbP6J3iYeuI7hiZGYgbuovok0ZV4/s400/p4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Figure 4 : Truth table for NOR gate.</div>
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There are more universal gates and you can just search it in the search engines. Here are some exercise for you guys to try! :)</div>
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> ABC + (ABC)'</div>
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> A(BC' + A'B)</div>
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> (A+B)(A+C)(A'C)</div>
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Posted by,</div>
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Nurul Asyikin Binti Jamalulail (B031210038)</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-37898977745947557622012-10-22T03:30:00.000+08:002012-10-22T05:58:46.303+08:00Truth Table by Nurul Faizah Sasaruddin<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMPMQ73rPKT0sb9mcZn_HK12UWXB3Z2Zs5CRg0-1WBX3nM9TFroR6y2CTLoLRSGaRI8HBEZcK_aA8dCzC8H0AYGj3nk9HVLCLCzCRV4Mf6ofclJqWvHOP9xHOfcKiIaWmq2KzlXhfwltPJ/s1600/assorted+tt.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMPMQ73rPKT0sb9mcZn_HK12UWXB3Z2Zs5CRg0-1WBX3nM9TFroR6y2CTLoLRSGaRI8HBEZcK_aA8dCzC8H0AYGj3nk9HVLCLCzCRV4Mf6ofclJqWvHOP9xHOfcKiIaWmq2KzlXhfwltPJ/s320/assorted+tt.gif" width="242" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Boolean algebra uses variables and operators to represent logic circuit. The variables and function have only one value, 0 and 1, high and low. The complement of a variable is shown by a bar over the letter such as A with a straight line above it, or apostrophe A'.</span></div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-large;">AND gate represent multiplication operation of input value.</span></div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-large;">OR gate represent adding operation of input value.</span></div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-large;">NOT or inverter will inverting the input value.</span></div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-large;">NAND or NOT AND represent multiplication and inverting the input value.</span></div>
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<span style="color: purple; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-large;">NOR or NOT OR represent adding and inverting the input value.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">A clip below shows you the graphical symbol and truth table for each gate.</span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dz5NrUrPYBmuBBRRyDlNpWkrHmnIH79g6z8BU0A7RccKUu3H2c6bKdJgiQy6cgpN6Sg6KTDLDOSVuFoq-JdyQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">1 + 1 = 0</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">1 + 0 = 1</span></span></div>
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1 x 1 = 1</div>
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1 x 0 = 0</div>
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<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">The name of gates, graphical symbol, algebraic expressions and truth table for each gate as shown below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">1. </span><span style="color: lime; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><u>AND</u></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5CXsJ_rcZA2GAmzaAcSNCOygLqjHMBG_wT03pfEqbhuLIWDtHkw150eSwQuvNMfazEzQz-sYke8YOxsPpo7Nv0N56Ju9H59l9TmKwqWFYKy6HR6SbVU4GD3Trgw9v2iYpOHADT7TTFHYi/s1600/and.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5CXsJ_rcZA2GAmzaAcSNCOygLqjHMBG_wT03pfEqbhuLIWDtHkw150eSwQuvNMfazEzQz-sYke8YOxsPpo7Nv0N56Ju9H59l9TmKwqWFYKy6HR6SbVU4GD3Trgw9v2iYpOHADT7TTFHYi/s320/and.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZdkT_XxoShCbb64PjmOh79zODGs2k8rq-GN2fFqGhbdreUyt3MPetb0KwMpRtX-c9IqMqXc_XyMwmi09RlleaA4HBfeUWc8FgoBhsFAg3eduozZ1WgLBslvvMDajtVrtIlBRabHX3a0hm/s1600/and.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZdkT_XxoShCbb64PjmOh79zODGs2k8rq-GN2fFqGhbdreUyt3MPetb0KwMpRtX-c9IqMqXc_XyMwmi09RlleaA4HBfeUWc8FgoBhsFAg3eduozZ1WgLBslvvMDajtVrtIlBRabHX3a0hm/s1600/and.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWe-qtwlWYY2F-q2GXIOpz01CQO-uitFjQdnbuXjwfVnGgJ6GBSRNCWsWx8GIYnMXM59yJnSY42wQ14dv_kcjIUBiPFCy-WDyw0tkc2mSlCw2jFoCpkKhhPBmKAMGMhyaecPUN2UNv5xY2/s1600/AND.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWe-qtwlWYY2F-q2GXIOpz01CQO-uitFjQdnbuXjwfVnGgJ6GBSRNCWsWx8GIYnMXM59yJnSY42wQ14dv_kcjIUBiPFCy-WDyw0tkc2mSlCw2jFoCpkKhhPBmKAMGMhyaecPUN2UNv5xY2/s320/AND.jpg" width="242" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: lime; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">2. <span style="color: lime;"><u>OR</u></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8_GlZQVwrumQJuyUj5kLq3NnUpokVsUpHD0jMwMfMJ_Cu6zRvRXxzLwhgHoPIG6OSf_4FGwZB88V6yMkHO410o1Fl8E4RVf0CTKis8n-46ShixzoWDvJN4dWnOkj3Vws_31frZ44qtW2D/s1600/OR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8_GlZQVwrumQJuyUj5kLq3NnUpokVsUpHD0jMwMfMJ_Cu6zRvRXxzLwhgHoPIG6OSf_4FGwZB88V6yMkHO410o1Fl8E4RVf0CTKis8n-46ShixzoWDvJN4dWnOkj3Vws_31frZ44qtW2D/s320/OR.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9QCjpdVq5yps130XFEi3QWyReeZaeH6xbtTcyhU68TRuH2sYq8W6zYNihJBzVlMtzh46fTulXxCpcoFJ4xlTjGk87bNe4gZMVNPOZ_5hNxKU54j8ZvBCiJoI2w_4dFN3bheIhSHAD0JTb/s1600/or.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9QCjpdVq5yps130XFEi3QWyReeZaeH6xbtTcyhU68TRuH2sYq8W6zYNihJBzVlMtzh46fTulXxCpcoFJ4xlTjGk87bNe4gZMVNPOZ_5hNxKU54j8ZvBCiJoI2w_4dFN3bheIhSHAD0JTb/s1600/or.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkY4UxlUEfqxGgl4Kp0v0OfwnEGvSCRDamFoJvOJ8qNziEuKGO9MjQAKTslU5jqhyphenhyphenoPdQjpPBxp_iufddREBtpmDzh-SyO8M2yPfq0Fk8I9BZFAFc0ECLCnJ3XwO4DHgAFOHVayVDnftjv/s1600/OR1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkY4UxlUEfqxGgl4Kp0v0OfwnEGvSCRDamFoJvOJ8qNziEuKGO9MjQAKTslU5jqhyphenhyphenoPdQjpPBxp_iufddREBtpmDzh-SyO8M2yPfq0Fk8I9BZFAFc0ECLCnJ3XwO4DHgAFOHVayVDnftjv/s320/OR1.jpg" width="241" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="color: lime;"><u><br /></u></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">3.<span style="color: lime;"> <u>NOT</u></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiugIVSHFOChYBFrLuBatqamEWUwB2ojQZ0_cS-NEQPImu9Up3IEM23pZ4L0ghPqxtazwez9kWOOm25eKXLHcAzw-cqQvvAETgvAqrFdQf6IpZmvYy2WSpBZWj61SnoBvecNvur9LGl803R/s1600/not.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiugIVSHFOChYBFrLuBatqamEWUwB2ojQZ0_cS-NEQPImu9Up3IEM23pZ4L0ghPqxtazwez9kWOOm25eKXLHcAzw-cqQvvAETgvAqrFdQf6IpZmvYy2WSpBZWj61SnoBvecNvur9LGl803R/s320/not.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdSTqKJJ7jl-Jg0WZfbIQG8QM6Trt1YUYDLF0Yuj644tdgl8jRLBgklC0gIcce8C8gYKkDzt1Ef7PkKEkQFnwEP8biiwglKdTwyfUhulCssb6lmcPh_k84jCbZE54MTeLbUIaxWcB3HQS/s1600/NOT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdSTqKJJ7jl-Jg0WZfbIQG8QM6Trt1YUYDLF0Yuj644tdgl8jRLBgklC0gIcce8C8gYKkDzt1Ef7PkKEkQFnwEP8biiwglKdTwyfUhulCssb6lmcPh_k84jCbZE54MTeLbUIaxWcB3HQS/s1600/NOT.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQXoM97AGkjyDzeWeLurfgpPNsUHkLgf9arLsWvPLiUpRu_FhkhMkQr09pSYDjUS388p4_AryWzpJGqPYlYwMjIqpvbS51bUnyYNu6lcDMroGDDXxkv2TAZGFKEszK1rqqbnxbm97xfQgu/s1600/NOT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQXoM97AGkjyDzeWeLurfgpPNsUHkLgf9arLsWvPLiUpRu_FhkhMkQr09pSYDjUS388p4_AryWzpJGqPYlYwMjIqpvbS51bUnyYNu6lcDMroGDDXxkv2TAZGFKEszK1rqqbnxbm97xfQgu/s200/NOT.jpg" width="180" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">4. <span style="color: lime;"><u>NAND</u></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNpErsO-i8Cb0Kc3cPLbUTZnyDVxXN2EanPnuAKF0FyjvtXMP3UhfpjfcH28RFVqe8gvcMj8THs9ixNxo_NIkx4IxiCQ7bysK590zvoStVzBk-7frZDisDDsDCmFCKx4QMRedFkJ7i8Q5-/s1600/nand.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="148" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNpErsO-i8Cb0Kc3cPLbUTZnyDVxXN2EanPnuAKF0FyjvtXMP3UhfpjfcH28RFVqe8gvcMj8THs9ixNxo_NIkx4IxiCQ7bysK590zvoStVzBk-7frZDisDDsDCmFCKx4QMRedFkJ7i8Q5-/s320/nand.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>also can be drawn as below</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2gytvORxw4oJLeG02-JIonkBlvuLSQyjJCjgIpOXu7k-lSOZ_-DjUP0iQL20HMcy-acowKxpDZWPLS1S7EVTAJQ2rWA0koG3B0JP3Gt-ok0AFrikpd5SeKCuNNjq-MRhK5K2EeuZEdOW1/s1600/nandtwo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2gytvORxw4oJLeG02-JIonkBlvuLSQyjJCjgIpOXu7k-lSOZ_-DjUP0iQL20HMcy-acowKxpDZWPLS1S7EVTAJQ2rWA0koG3B0JP3Gt-ok0AFrikpd5SeKCuNNjq-MRhK5K2EeuZEdOW1/s320/nandtwo.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxRXAoroPMGTh07yiZFhuL8C1nPEfTuE_iVASrnbpNoKDYcRXXGhHpySRRtQbrSk5Uakpo5SuC_LwhHyIZ1azLgFVRSXeWK6_0JfJWZrKIyQjC4HR2Ikut04doqqgVZo1QW89SJtEoYkr1/s1600/NAND.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxRXAoroPMGTh07yiZFhuL8C1nPEfTuE_iVASrnbpNoKDYcRXXGhHpySRRtQbrSk5Uakpo5SuC_LwhHyIZ1azLgFVRSXeWK6_0JfJWZrKIyQjC4HR2Ikut04doqqgVZo1QW89SJtEoYkr1/s1600/NAND.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0dUjm_gg7AjQ0RNs-BMLcEV54JGTVcjxhT6Vclue8D849_d6MG1a4EuHplseR-WL1JcNwzMwDJux9hRWZchBdFGR0IZr-tOJArHHiMBRbqaZykDw49pq3whLXWKrVL0JlqbDQIONUUSGi/s1600/NAND.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0dUjm_gg7AjQ0RNs-BMLcEV54JGTVcjxhT6Vclue8D849_d6MG1a4EuHplseR-WL1JcNwzMwDJux9hRWZchBdFGR0IZr-tOJArHHiMBRbqaZykDw49pq3whLXWKrVL0JlqbDQIONUUSGi/s320/NAND.jpg" width="242" /></a></div>
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5. <span style="color: lime;"><u>NOR</u></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIdQ0-RnMcdLl_XdtfvvOpYhRGiP6qkTmdMaYNu8YeTlLQtVNrypXArU2nNrsU7CgOW6W1bpUSoNTlLJW-XhBZixMvmBMWMl0RWBtv2l67b92-y0q2nP_FFSg-tsgcWWsDnSAyVSwJ-53i/s1600/NOR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="154" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIdQ0-RnMcdLl_XdtfvvOpYhRGiP6qkTmdMaYNu8YeTlLQtVNrypXArU2nNrsU7CgOW6W1bpUSoNTlLJW-XhBZixMvmBMWMl0RWBtv2l67b92-y0q2nP_FFSg-tsgcWWsDnSAyVSwJ-53i/s320/NOR.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>also can be drawn as below</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibrejZFSFSe4MCYTrMLFDgVuWkJjl_-LaYngU3FNDp9a870yXljnys3G33KBLVh7pPCL2gtkJQKyriLdESiNWZy3VNd3PVx9DhSucB_FnCSrur2DfBy8yhsZlf3lN9PCcwrx-mh-ROZpEw/s1600/nortwo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="176" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibrejZFSFSe4MCYTrMLFDgVuWkJjl_-LaYngU3FNDp9a870yXljnys3G33KBLVh7pPCL2gtkJQKyriLdESiNWZy3VNd3PVx9DhSucB_FnCSrur2DfBy8yhsZlf3lN9PCcwrx-mh-ROZpEw/s320/nortwo.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: magenta;">posted by: Nurul Faizah binti Sasaruddin - B031210257</span></div>
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<span style="color: lime;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-79520184801329631372012-10-22T03:17:00.000+08:002012-10-22T03:17:10.996+08:00Arithmetic for Computers - Binary Multiplication by Nurul JamalHello guys and girls! Okay, for this sub-topic all you need to know is this 4 simple rules.<br />
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<p:colorscheme colors="#ffffff,#000000,#808080,#000000,#bbe0e3,#333399,#009999,#99cc00">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Malgun Gothic';"><b>Binary Rules</b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Malgun Gothic';"><b>Multiply</b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0 x 0 = 0</span></div>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0</span></div>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0 x 1 = 1</span></div>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1 x 0 = 1</span></div>
</td>
<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0</span></div>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1 x 1 = 1</span></div>
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<td height="32" style="border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; vertical-align: top;" width="125">
<div style="mso-char-wrap: 1; mso-kinsoku-overflow: 1; mso-line-spacing: "100 20 0"; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Malgun Gothic"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1</span></div>
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Simple right? If you still can't understand.. Check out few tips from the video below :)<br />
- <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QW0XNZPyWUk">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QW0XNZPyWUk</a><br />
- <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaRjfIO9cNM">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaRjfIO9cNM</a><br />
- <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oza8QW5V7Qc">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oza8QW5V7Qc</a><br />
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Posted by,<br />
Nurul Asyikin Binti Jamalulail (B031210038)Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-4119607464226244852012-10-22T02:13:00.000+08:002012-10-22T02:13:06.896+08:00Arithmetic for Computers - 2's Complement Number by Nurul Jamal2's complement method of representing numbers is commonly used in microprocessor-based equipment. Both positive and negative number must be processed in the microprocessor. The 2's complement representation used for sign and magnitude number can be determined.<br />
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Assume a microprocessor have 8 register bits. Figure below show the sign bits or the most significant bit (MSB). If the MSB bit = 0, then the number is positive (+). Otherwise, the number is negative (-). The other 7-bits are represent as the magnitude numbers. The 1st bit from right is the least significant bit (LSB).<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHAooqlbXlJAM5t_uNFLgLgRJZE4NUH6nkj_0bwpzHZPIroyHpEzwJuK_Ri9DpA9nJV6ogb99DhESP_m6aeuf6q2oGjhInhE7AwEclK6VNbFC3iCdWgJyRaN2BgceiPpMWig4cBsPGgAfv/s1600/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHAooqlbXlJAM5t_uNFLgLgRJZE4NUH6nkj_0bwpzHZPIroyHpEzwJuK_Ri9DpA9nJV6ogb99DhESP_m6aeuf6q2oGjhInhE7AwEclK6VNbFC3iCdWgJyRaN2BgceiPpMWig4cBsPGgAfv/s640/Picture1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Example for converting a negative number. Let's convert 125.</div>
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Step 1 : Convert 125 into 8-bits binary number</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBo2jjGC8IUgZ6A1wsFX9BYPoONgmsUbviKN0Uq1Pt9C1zftqAQmZ_ql2-ipSLoeqZqba48G15H7lRjKUZj28NVmI-K_C-KQZb31cJKA3MBeTBaFCUSWao0XRA1Eg7Z3UusBPlxt_7eJRY/s1600/Picture2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="108" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBo2jjGC8IUgZ6A1wsFX9BYPoONgmsUbviKN0Uq1Pt9C1zftqAQmZ_ql2-ipSLoeqZqba48G15H7lRjKUZj28NVmI-K_C-KQZb31cJKA3MBeTBaFCUSWao0XRA1Eg7Z3UusBPlxt_7eJRY/s640/Picture2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Step 2 : Each 0 is changed into 1 and each 1 is changed into 0. (Except for MSB)<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdqTmcHj2i0a0nCxN4WY0hLjkaHpmpvpWhrU1F2t304PjGEnBPC7uCUtXuhWtJSFiVEu7YdvON_u8FG1fP1RxPN7O8HYqis-Wr_4ErR7w5wIYcvzkf-eyNS1Tp09xY0BUnMnNgbZwxYw50/s1600/Picture3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="108" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdqTmcHj2i0a0nCxN4WY0hLjkaHpmpvpWhrU1F2t304PjGEnBPC7uCUtXuhWtJSFiVEu7YdvON_u8FG1fP1RxPN7O8HYqis-Wr_4ErR7w5wIYcvzkf-eyNS1Tp09xY0BUnMnNgbZwxYw50/s640/Picture3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
Step 3 : Add +1 to the first complement. (Don't ask why, because this is the formula to change a positive number to a negative number)<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfNXn959eU87YvbPfGCg8V3ndqKsQeVqaC3RglE1qsu-ikYjfLci8G1xEi4qfk1A38STBKBbKjDOuo1ryOYFyK2xEHRmCXMgwOH-LZIiHKXtxCxTpxUSFa46ONhB0GdtLoP9y2seXRidxp/s1600/Picture4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="108" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfNXn959eU87YvbPfGCg8V3ndqKsQeVqaC3RglE1qsu-ikYjfLci8G1xEi4qfk1A38STBKBbKjDOuo1ryOYFyK2xEHRmCXMgwOH-LZIiHKXtxCxTpxUSFa46ONhB0GdtLoP9y2seXRidxp/s640/Picture4.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Step 4 : The MSB will be changed into 1.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSpphwnNhqDfWum4BTdx268jMTek3tjO-4bYvPbUecuqRoN0t4hiXugjYKFesSHNlNCTjYcQ8RZyguRk2IAREok9B_tUogPJ32axPo-x_5LcHpXKthj1lqreOsHrV2geoRDMFqwH20a6DV/s1600/Picture5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="108" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSpphwnNhqDfWum4BTdx268jMTek3tjO-4bYvPbUecuqRoN0t4hiXugjYKFesSHNlNCTjYcQ8RZyguRk2IAREok9B_tUogPJ32axPo-x_5LcHpXKthj1lqreOsHrV2geoRDMFqwH20a6DV/s640/Picture5.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Easy right?? Okay, here are some question that you can do by yourself. Have fun learning :)<br />
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*Convert the following signed decimal numbers to their 8-bit 2's complement equivalents.<br />
> +13<br />
> +110<br />
> -25<br />
> -90<br />
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Posted by,<br />
Nurul Asyikin Binti Jamalulail (B031210038)<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-31494282293274272752012-10-21T10:44:00.001+08:002012-10-22T03:20:18.253+08:00Digital Logic - Karnaugh Map (Kmap) by Farhana Zubir<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8vn243RrIGJz_TTrrRfwHFOybW6bDR0nbaRCDj14_hX_I2CnzX_-BNj4X-2SqsfdFLfu2fhplA1zfBHUeTO1BZdje5kQZBFGBZSqBIFP301BC6JeR3WUxz0JJTAQSt7VpXnFFs3O_ldZ4/s1600/KP+%2521.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8vn243RrIGJz_TTrrRfwHFOybW6bDR0nbaRCDj14_hX_I2CnzX_-BNj4X-2SqsfdFLfu2fhplA1zfBHUeTO1BZdje5kQZBFGBZSqBIFP301BC6JeR3WUxz0JJTAQSt7VpXnFFs3O_ldZ4/s640/KP+%2521.jpg" width="452" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQjnrIg8qT2BBRdUruW-8WV8mKXHMDb-vvrUVpzxKJ2vRO4LMxur6IuDQd_7pLiktdFHhyr3pM5YqCHe9WbTKT7B8epbW3bmacHpLOpQAhoA4nT7plY1PPL5hvrgYRqZqVC7z_UXBsfaAe/s1600/KP+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQjnrIg8qT2BBRdUruW-8WV8mKXHMDb-vvrUVpzxKJ2vRO4LMxur6IuDQd_7pLiktdFHhyr3pM5YqCHe9WbTKT7B8epbW3bmacHpLOpQAhoA4nT7plY1PPL5hvrgYRqZqVC7z_UXBsfaAe/s640/KP+2.jpg" width="452" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11Wb_-o37o0Jc6a1CX2KYg7hf83tkUkbS3QLEM0btt0dOMyeTEfRlHFhWz6S4jI1Kob5AWOcFjb_de4BF3A5uvIrfEGSGp-qZeH-iMPAEZk4fcaYVBMlkLDKWDc1fd90hIhmHExushrn6/s1600/KP+3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11Wb_-o37o0Jc6a1CX2KYg7hf83tkUkbS3QLEM0btt0dOMyeTEfRlHFhWz6S4jI1Kob5AWOcFjb_de4BF3A5uvIrfEGSGp-qZeH-iMPAEZk4fcaYVBMlkLDKWDc1fd90hIhmHExushrn6/s640/KP+3.jpg" width="452" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirtfMBPWvYyLDybih3sGbwCqnqK_uZ8knVJQWtdmUZGQaUfxTDUlbtlimixfs6KjOqbHhNQDOQpZLZHUbj0CpnDzXHGv3w0OMz-oGts3BrQq3UEQUY5Uis9wKxytRo2IxuLeXyvqmO9ALK/s1600/KP+4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirtfMBPWvYyLDybih3sGbwCqnqK_uZ8knVJQWtdmUZGQaUfxTDUlbtlimixfs6KjOqbHhNQDOQpZLZHUbj0CpnDzXHGv3w0OMz-oGts3BrQq3UEQUY5Uis9wKxytRo2IxuLeXyvqmO9ALK/s640/KP+4.jpg" width="452" /></a></div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-27399255434915345242012-10-21T07:08:00.000+08:002012-10-22T03:23:24.345+08:00Arithmetic for Computers - Addition by Farhana Zubir<a name='more'></a><!--[if !mso]>
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<!--EndFragment-->Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05812661469258117692noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4233159322639643313.post-73067328848074619522012-10-06T22:12:00.001+08:002012-10-06T22:12:57.434+08:00Welcome ! :)Assalamualaikum and hi!! :)<br />
Please please please, FOLLOW us to keep up-to-date with our incoming posts about IT!<br />
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